Alternative Fuels
HYDROGEN

Politicians and the media seem obsessed with the use of hydrogen gas as a motor fuel. A few years ago Insite published an article about hydrogen. Apart from an up date on the research facilities in the US mentioned, nothing else has changed and still worth reading. It spelled out the technical use of the gas in generating power in a vehicle.

The principle sources of hydrogen will,in the long term, come from the cracking of water and natural gas. As ready sources ie ‘off the shelf’ supplies are limited to a few sites in the UK. One long term source is a by-product of the salt process from the mines in Cheshire and the other, again as a by product, from some chemical plants. These volumes are relatively small compared with the cracking processes of natural gas and water. Both of these processes as the Insite article states, require energy to be expended to release the hydrogen. With natural gas we have the obvious dilema of the competitive situation with the current usage of the gas in the domestic environment and secondly, it is a heat source in generating electricity in power stations. Both of these are subject to the adding of VAT to the bill to the end user, albeit at a reduced amount – at the moment!

So what of the future of hydrogen as a motor fuel? Please download and read this article in full (pdf)

HSE Alert
Stage 2 Vapour Recovery

The advent of Stage 2 Vapour Recovery in the UK has introduced a new hazard that maintenance contractors need to be aware of when carrying out maintenance to the underground storage tanks and associated pipe work. 

This will include anyone opening a fill point, such as a Site Operator, Petroleum Officer, Weights and Measures Inspector or Approved Verifier etc.

This safety alert is being issued to bring awareness to all members, of a safety critical aspect of work being carried out on stage 2 systems:

Please download and read this document in full (pdf)

Summary of Technical Advisor Phil Mongers'
presentation to the AGM

Biofuels
The Service Station Panel at the Energy Institute have prepared and published guidance on the introduction of biofuels B5 and E5. Accompanying the guidance is a two-page summary and checklist for site operators and contractors to follow. The PRA has distributed this checklist widely amongst retailers and copies can be obtained from the Institute or the PRA.

The key element of preparation for storing biofuels is the removal of any residual water and frequent problems arise where that is not done. Filter blocking and dispensers running slowly are the most common and nozzle cutouts failing because of pressure starvation can be costly to retailers having to compensate motorists who have been splashed with fuel.

The common use of heldite or 'black' as it is commonly referred to, in use as a jointing compound, gives rise to concern about leaking joints and ethanol is not compatible with this compound. Site operators are being advised to carry out periodic checks in manchambers and around the hydraulics of dispensers, to spot any leaks.

Automatic Temperature Compensation (ATC).

The first ATC fitted dispensers have been installed at Bonnybridge in Scotland. The site owner was suffering large fuel temperature swings, dependant on which terminal the fuel was delivered from. The National Weights and Measures Laboratory (NWML) has produced guidance for Manufacturers, Retailers and Motorists, which includes recommendations for labelling and Point of sale information. Guidance on testing is also provided for Trading Standards Officers.

Legislative Reform Order (LRO)

Having been passed by both Houses of Parliament, The Legislative Reform (Verification of Weighing and Measuring Equipment) Order, will now come into force in February 2009. This order amends the Weights and Measures Act, to allow for the verification of fuel dispenser meters by Approved Verifiers, after adjustment within the legal tolerances. This change will bring a cost saving to petrol retailers. This is a considerable success for this industry, which has presented a strong case for regular checking of dispenser meters to improve wetstock reconciliation and bring the prospect of better leak detection.

Petroleum Vapour Recovery (PVR)

Current proposals are for annual subsistence charges for PVR1 and 2 to be risk related. If the proposal is accepted, those sites established as low risk will in 2009 pay less than the charge for 2008 whilst those who are classified medium risk will pay the same in 2009 as they did in 2008. Those classified as high risk will be paying more. The regularity of inspection by Local Authorities will relate to the risk ranking, which will enable them to reduce their costs. The methodology for risk ranking takes into consideration the operation of the process, the equipment maintenance and the training of staff.

Environment Agency Policy and Practice Document

The recently published document has produced unexpected problems for the industry. Planning applications for the refurbishment of sites in Source Protection Zone 1 (SPZ1), are being objected to by the Agency Regional Officers. This has been surprising, because although the policy opposes the building of sites in SPZ1’s, it also states that where sites already exist in SPZ1’s, the Agency will work with site owners to meet the standard. Following two meetings between the Agency and the Industry, the Service Station Panel has been commissioned to produce guidance for the Agency showing how the standards can be achieved by modern methods of design and build. This work is ongoing.

Bugs Bugs and more Bugs

As if there was not enough going on within this industry at this moment in time we have to contend with this rapidly increasing problem of bacterial growth within storage tanks. With the increasing number of enquires regarding clogging of fuel pumps filters and the seriousness of this phenomeum which is going to be such an important part of operating a filling station for the foreseeable future.

For those that have not come across this situation on their forecourt have been lucky but it could hit at any time. With the changing specification of product to meet legislation dead lines there are now circumstances that will produce growth within the storage tank farm with either product petrol or diesel.

The control and management of this growth will dictate the inconvenience as well as the damage that can be caused to a storage tank?

What are these bugs and how do they get into the tank.

• Delivered by the tanker
• Via the vent pipe
• From within the tank
• Contaminated stock being delivered to the site is a possibility depending on the supplier storage facilities

Air drawn in via the venting system containing spores formed and bred within the storage tank between the interface of the fuel and water level.

There are some sites that will be at higher risk than others but the main cause of these bugs is water either in the delivered product, leakage into the tank via fittings and connections plus heavy condensation.

Here are some answers that might give a better a better understanding.

Micro-organisms (Bugs)

Those that are found in petrol are Cladosporium resinae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and some are blessed with spectacular rates of growth of 100% in less than 30 min.

Their activity

They survive in the interface between the product and water feeding of the hyrocarbons. They are dark and have a fluffy gel like appearance. Waste that they secret produces water, sludge and acidic products. There is also the consumption of rubber gaskets, seals hoses and coatings for their mineral contents.

The tell tell signs

Slow running pumps, clogged filters and smell of sulphur.

The importance of control

As already mention the main cause of this problem is water and regular inspection or a water indicator built into gauges. This may not be enough but by taking action as soon as possible may reduce the risks of tank damage due to corrosion from their acid waste.

What about the Diesel Bug

The Diesel Bug tends to come in two main forms, sludge or insoluble organic particles:

Sludge

Sludge is the more common form being experienced at present. This is caused by over 100 different types of bugs that can live in water as well as the diesel fuel itself. The food of the diesel bugs are supplied by the hydrocarbons in the fossil fuel based diesel, or the nutrients in the bio-diesel. While the respiratory or breathing needs of the bug are ascertained from the dissolved oxygen within the diesel fuel, or in the most cases, the water that has naturally accumulated within the fuel tank.

Insoluble Organic Particles

These are otherwise known as Asphaltenes, which come from the natural chemical process in diesel fuel as it ages over time. The asphaltene molecules will tend to precipitate out of the ageing of the fuel (old fuel which has been standing) and will settle in the bottom of the tank.

Tell Tale Signs

If you are unfortunate to have fuel tanks which suffer from a form of diesel bug the tell tale signs are fairly obvious:

Slow diesel pump dispensing compared to normal Fuel pump “spitback”where the pump stops dispensing despite pulling the trigger, fuel will then spit out under pressure as the diesel bug momentarily clears from the filters and allows the flow Fuel pump filters having to be cleaned on a regular basis.

Any of the above unfortunately means the tank will probably have diesel bug contamination. This contamination will carry on developing and the problem will get worse unless treated.

How do I prevent the Diesel Bug from forming?

The only way to prevent the diesel bug from existing is to eradicate water within the tank. Water is the key form of life for any living thing, including the diesel bug.

How do I clean a Contaminated Tank?

Manually. This operation as you would expect is a very time consuming and costly job. In most cases the forecourt would have to be closed down for a lengthy period of time seriously affecting the income the forecourt operation generates.

The cost of cleaning the tank alone is normally in excess of £1,500 per tank and can take depending on the location of the tank can take a number of days to clean. However the tank can soon become contaminated again if water ingress occurs.

Is there a more simple and cost effective method?

Yes - Bio Klenz Bio Klenz is a detergent based additive, which eradicates the diesel bug.

Bio Klenz is simply poured into the tank, ideally directly into the tank with a fresh supply of fuel and it then goes to work. Subsequent doses via off set fills.

What Does It Do?

Bio Klenz completely absorbs any water within the tank.

With the water now eradicated the diesel bug suffocates, and the total fuel/diesel mixture then goes to work attacking and dissolving the bug.

Bio Klenz being detergent based it has no detrimental effect what so ever to the quality of fuel being used.

Dosage:

• Maintenance dosage: 1 :1000
• Severe contamination: 1 :500
• For sites that are caught with this problem we propose to create strategic storeage around the country so as to enable stricken sites to get up and running as soon as possible.

Technical Specification:

• Non – Flammable
• Non – Corrosive
• Non-Toxic
• Biodegradable
• Bio Klenz is PH neutral, contains no petroleum hydrocarbons, sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen or metallic components.

Rodney Carter

PEIMF Launches Associate Membership Scheme

The National Committee of the PEIMF - after much discussion and the commissioning of a case study by PTF Training into the subject - have decided to launch a new membership category.

We will now be offering Associate Membership of the Federation to individuals who are not associated with any particular company or organisation, but who wish to keep abreast of the happenings within the industry. This will be of particular interest to those who no longer have access to Insite magazine, having left their company or simply moved to another department within their organisation. Also, those who have retired and wish to remain in touch with the industry may wish to join in their own right. The joining fee at £30 per annum is a snip.

Visit the joining page for more information >>

Bio-fuels

With the introduction of bio-fuels into the market place, various issues are now coming to the fore, which may affect our members in a variety of ways.

One such fuel is Ethanol, which has been developed in response to concerns for the environmental impact of the increasing use of petroleum. The most common type of Ethanol is known as E85. ('E' for ethanol.) E85 is composed of approximately 85% denatured ethanol and 15% unleaded petroleum spirit and is at present a niche market but one that is progressing slowly in the UK.

Current concerns for the industry involve the effects on equipment e.g. filters, tanks and pipe work. Also, there is very little information available e.g. COSHH, Health and Safety data sheets, with regards to the effects on the health of operatives handling the fuel or contaminated equipment.

The APEA is in the process of producing a guidance document on the storage and dispensing of high blend ethanol fuels with the intention of it being amalgamated into the 'Blue Book'. A copy of the 5th draft has been reviewed by the committee and comments have been passed back to the APEA. The document, as its name suggests, covers storage and dispensing. There is little with regards to health and safety issues.

Concern about this ‘omission’ has now been raised with the Service Station Panel at the Energy Institute. The feedback from that group is that information with regards to items such as COSHH should be available on the web sites of the producing/supplying oil companies.

Members who have any concerns or wish to highlight issues should contact us.

Rex Wheeler - 31/5/07

PPG2 Regulations - Covering the installation of above ground fuel tanks

After nearly two years, the final draft of the PPG2 regulations has been agreed following the PEIMF's objections that the downstream petroleum sector we operate in, was being included in the catering and domestic fuel storage sector dominated by OFTEC.

The final draft will exclude our industry entirely, including commercial installations and forecourts. Tenders from local authorities should now NOT specify OFTEC standards when seeking quotations for vehicle fuel filling installations of any kind. Any PEIMF member who discovers that this is happening, should report this to the Federation immediately, when representations will be made.

Rex Wheeler - 20/01/09

Stage 2 Vapour Recovery - Code of Practice

The Stage 2 vapour recovery control regulations came into effect in the UK on 1st October 2006. These regulations impose compliance with a threshold of 3500 m³ annual throughput for existing stations and 500 m³ for new stations - for petrol.

The guidance note has been issued by DEFRA . Further details are available on DEFRA's web site under reference  SI  2006  No 2311   http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si200623.htm

Retailers should be aware that they will have to have this equipment installed by 1st January 2010.

Contractors wishing to get involved in this work should contact the pump manufacturers who will add your company to their list of approved contractors.

There are many sites to convert and little time to complete the programme and all competent contractors will be asked to get involved. It is up to you -  so don't delay!

Green Spirit Pioneers Bioethanol Market Green Spirit Pioneers Bioethanol Market

Green Spirit Fuels is one of a small number of companies that are pioneering the
bioethanol market in the UK. Founded by grain trader Wessex Grain in June 2005,
it aims to build the first plant to produce bioethanol from wheat at Henstridge
in Somerset, and is also planning to build bioethanol plants at other strategic points
in the UK.

Wessex Grain was founded as a farmers’ co-operative in the 1980s and became a limited company in 2003. The company has been exploring the possibility of producing ethanol from wheat for a number of years, and has been looking at examples of successful plants in Spain and Sweden where bioethanol production is well established. There is also a large industry in the US where it is made from maize, and in Brazil where the feedstock is sugar cane.

However, in the past two to three years the impetus behind fuels from renewable sources has gathered momentum, with increasing concerns about carbon emissions from both consumers and government, as well as issues over security of supply. In 2001, the EU issued indicative targets to member states of 2% of biofuels by 2005 and 5.75% by the year 2010. The UK government encouraged this by introducing a discount of 20p per litre on duty at the pump which applied to both biodiesel and bioethanol from January 2005.

Further legislative weight was put behind the move towards biofuels in November 2005 when the government announced its intention to introduce a Road Transport Fuels Obligation. In the April budget, the Chancellor confirmed that this would mean that fuel companies would have to include 2.75 per cent of fuel from renewable sources by 2008/9 rising to 5 per cent by 2010/11. He also announced the government’s intention to introduce enhanced capital allowances on investment in building plants for biofuels from 2007. This, combined with the increased oil price, has been driving activity in this market.

Having been founded as an independent company in June 2005, Green Spirit successfully secured its first round of funding in September that year. In January this year it received planning permission for its site at Henstridge, and will
commence building later this year, with a view to production commencing in 2007. Green Spirit’s MD Malcolm Shepherd points out that the use of ethanol in motor vehicles actually pre-dates petrol. “Henry Ford’s original Model T was actually designed to run on ethanol made from corn,” he says, “So in a sense we have just come full circle.

The fact that it offers savings on Greenhouse Gas emissions of anything up to 65 per cent means that it will undoubtedly appeal to consumers as well as government.” Although up to five per cent bioethanol can be used in existing petrol vehicles without affecting the manufacturers’ guarantee, plans are also well advanced to introduce an 85 per cent mix know as E85 into the UK. Morrison’s are selling it on some of their sites including those in Somerset which will serve the Somerset Biofuels Project. This initiative involves Green Spirit and Wessex Grain, but more significantly will see fleet owners such as the Somerset and Avon Police, Wessex Water and Somerset County Council running some E85 vehicles made by Ford.

More information on Green Spirit Fuels, the Henstridge bioethanol plant and bioethanol in general can be found at www.greenspiritfuels.com.

GSF Welcomes Clear Steps Towards Broadening The UK Bioethanol Market

Green Spirit Fuels (GSF), the UK’s leading bio-ethanol development company today welcomed the UK's first bioethanol E85 pump at Morrisons supermarket in Norwich as “another clear step towards developing the UK based bioethanol market”.

The UK has lagged behind Europe in the development of a bioethanol industry that can deliver proven reductions in harmful emissions from transport.

Construction of GSF's first plant at Henstridge in Somerset is expected to commence during 2006 with production starting in 2007.  This bio-refinery will produce bio-ethanol from wheat already grown in the local area. 

Current fuel specifications allow bioethanol to be blended with petrol up to up to 5% without any requirement for engine modification.  The existing, and persistent, UK grain surplus is sufficient to provide 5% of the UK's total petrol needs.

Specially modified Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFV's) can operate on up to 85% bioethanol, which will also be available from the plant.  

Managing Director Malcolm Shepherd continued:

“We believe that Morrisons commitment to bioethanol shows another clear signal to the government by retailers and industry that the UK is committed to developing a bioethanol future.  We hope that this will be further reflected in the Budget next week, by pushing forward the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation with targets that will really get the oil majors engaged.  A timid response from government at this stage will lead to their targets being missed and another missed opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport. Investors are now ready to help the government tackle climate change but they need to see challenging targets for the use of biofuels and significant penalties to ensure compliance.”

Web advertising offer - up to 25% discount

We have laid out the new format for our web site and placed links to members and other valuable organisations which visitors can use .

In addition we are placing much needed and interesting articles and press releases to keep it up to date . If there are any comments or inserts your company or organisation would like to place on the site just leave a message and we will deal with it.

Advertising on the site has already started and is creating much interest. If you are already advertising in INSITE then you will qualify for a 25% discount for a web advert.

Excerpts from INSITE will be selected for continuing reference which visitors can download. The results of visitor numbers to the site are very impressive and stretch across the globe. Russia, China, North Korea and USA to name a few. So if you want to get noticed then get on our web site.

Advertising enquiries should be sent to peimf@aol.com or ring 01886 880081.

Were the environment is concerned - Every Little Helps

The term biodiesel needs to be identified more closely, as there are more and more bio's entering the vocabulary of the fuelling business. The chances are that Bishops Castle in Shropshire doesn't spring quickly to mind as a centre for alternative fuels, but you would be wrong. Intelligent Energy Systems Ltd (IES) based in Bishops Castle are pioneering a fuel new to this country that could, on a grander scale, lead to many more vehicles using their biodiesel and adding to the ever growing list of alternative sources of energy. We are hearing much about hydrogen fuelled cars as a fuel for the future, but little about biodiesel.

So what is biodiesel?

It is vegetable oil which has had the glycerol removed by a simple chemical process called transesterification. In this case it is discarded cooking oil originally from rape seed that is collected and esterifiedcleaned by IES and resold as biodiesel to the local community. Only vegetable oil Were the environment is concerned - Every Little Helps from rape seed is used as other oils can tend to be subject to waxing. Other vegetable oils such as palm oil are sensitive in the political arena, when rain forests are put into the equation.

Collected from a variety of sources by a local fruit and vegetable wholesaler at the current rate of around two tonne's every week, you might be lead to ask the question "Is it worth it?" In the grand scale of things this venture is small, but to the local users it is certainly a contribution to the push for cutting emissions as there are none, as biodiesel is effectively a carbon neutral fuel.

Available from Union Street Garage , Bishops Castle, it is stored and pumped from a stand-alone above ground tank with an integral Puisi pump supplied by Central Tank Services. As it is a 'not for resale' approved pump meter, a club has been formed under the banner of the aptly named The Wasteless Society. It costs members £5 to join the club and fuel is dispensed at 90p per litre(includes vat and 27.1p duty). It is 100% biodiesel which gives comparable performance to standard diesel, but many manufacturers currently may not uphold engine warranties, which can put people off from joining the club initially. But the club makes it clear about all the potential pitfalls that might befall the user, which happily have not been forthcoming .

Entrepreneur and MD of I.E.S. Ltd Richard Hill is confident that this venture is only in its infancy and expansion plans are in hand to boost sales. Richard is from farming stock himself and is keen to exploit the resources of the land from whatever angle and is eyeing the prospects of the ethanol market, to establish a crop rotation system with rape and other grain crops that will sustain both and keep the soil in equilibrium.

Read more about ethanol as a fuel in the article entitled Ethanol - the coming fuel?

Stage 2 Vapour Recovery

The deadline for sites to be converted to Stage 2 vapour recovery is now set for January 1st 2010. Only low volume sites will be exempt. This only gives the industry less than four years to complete the task. But as the old saying goes “problems are opportunities to be solved”.

The contracting industry has not had a major programme of retro-fits and adaptations for some years, but to meet the target date it will be “all hands to the pumps” - literally. Where to start for those contractors not allied to a manufacturer of pumps will be a problem. Training in the installation of the conversion kits (there will be a number of types) will be from the pump manufacturers and no doubt sub contracting will be the order of the day to keep to the target.

Suppliers of parts will play an active part in the scheme of things, as the articles in this issue of INSITE clearly show. Contractors should read through very carefully the articles in this issue to get a good grasp of the methods required and what the function of the components are. Then, if you are inclined to get involved, make contact. This legislation only applies to petrol of course and with the number of sites falling below the 10,000 level we are reliably informed, that still leaves a lot of sites to complete in less that four years. Monitoring the effectiveness of the claimed vapour rate will be a major issue. The USA sites fitted with Stage 2 in the first attempt failed and had to stripped out, being replaced with Enhanced Vapour Recovery (EVR). So let us hope the manufacturers have got it right first time. We’ll see.

Ethanol - the coming fuel?

The USA Government is moving, albeit slowly, towards a 5 billion US gallon ethanol mandate by 2012. The US has a long history of ethanol in motor spirit and is coming to terms with the likelihood of an 85% ethanol and 15% petrol mixture - E85 for short. It is a high octane fuel, but with less overall energy than petrol alone. With over 3 million vehicles already sold that can handle E85, this is a very purposeful move indeed. A further development is the E95% ie 95% ethanol mix for the diesel market.

What is the source of ethanol?

It is produced by the fermentation of corn and other grain products and could in the future be extracted from agricultural wastes. With farmers in the EU being subsidised to "set aside " land that once yielded crops and are now redundant due to over production, this could be very good news indeed.

What are its main characteristics?

Ethanol cannot efficiently be transported by pipeline to depots for redistribution ,as it readily picks up water. The water is suspended as opposed to water in fuel which sinks. Development of sensitive filters that are compatible with fuel mix to deal with this issue are on-going. Ethanol also acts as a cleaning agent, breaking up loose sediments that have built up in tanks. Filters may clog initially in tanks converted for this fuel mix, but will eventually clear as the sediment works its way out.

What are the likely problems for equipment handling ethanol?

Equipment manufacturers in the US have had many years experience in adapting their products to handle ethanol. In the main tanks, pumps, nozzles, hoses, and pipes have been adapted to cope with a higher alcohol levels.

Cleaner fuel is what governments are aiming for and ethanol mixers are on the agenda.

Hydrogen fuel - is it the motorists panacea?

The first thing to understand about hydrogen is that it not a basic energy source. It is a conversion product requiring the expenditure of other energy to extract hydrogen from water or natural gas. Whether one uses natural gas or electrolysis of water to obtain hydrogen, energy is lost by as much as 65% by the time one gets to reconvert the hydrogen back into electricity in the fuel cell. One ready hydrogen source is the Sun, but we can comfortably rule that out for now.

In the USA there is in being The California Fuel Cell Partnership which includes eight motor manufacturers including Ford, Toyota, and General Motors. The intention is to develop hydrogen powered vehicles, yet at the same time compete with each other. A somewhat tricky situation indeed. They all operate in one building where they have their own service area, which in essence means that they are all developing their own design but with common technology regarding the application of the hydrogen power source.

The hydrogen is not burnt as with other fuels, but is used to power a fuel cell which in turn produces electricity to drive an electric motor. This of course is not new technology as hydrogen suppliers will tell you. Enquiries as long ago as 1960 seeking to get hydrogen into cars was being bandied about, but then the relatively cheap oil based fuels were never under threat from an unproven technology, so the status quo remained. It wasn't till world politics, followed by the hike in oil prices in the 1970's that things began to change. From the 1980's to the present day the word environment has had quite a different emphasis. In the mean-while hydrogen was being used in many chemical processes including the hydrogenation of margarine as an example.

Hydrogen is notoriously difficult to store and as liquid is a non starter in relation to the motor car due to the ultra low temperature of the gas which has to be sustained. We are therefore dealing with a gaseous fuel which is highly flammable and difficult to smell or see when alight. Clearly designers have to be certain of the safety aspects at all costs.

At this point one can see the reasons for the long period of development which is being estimated before we see production quantities coming off the conveyor belt and onto the roads.

In these columns we have highlighted various experimental vehicles using hydrogen technology across the globe, most of which are of the hybrid design. In the dim distant past there have been vehicles using hydrogen as a fuel, with a large bag of hydrogen on the roof. However the Hindenberg crash put paid to that idea.

These hybrid cars use both fossil fuels and fuel cell technology. Running primarily on petrol or diesel alongside an electric motor which is battery sourced, being charged during braking and long even spells of driving. The motor cuts-in in slow traffic, which is especially useful in urban travel, being silent and pollution free. Notably Honda and Toyota sell such vehicles today with over 100,000 already on the road between them. But the ultimate aim is the hydrogen only powered vehicle, being manufactured in production line quantities and at a price we can all afford. This is what the The California Fuel Cell Partnership is all about.

So how will the hydrogen only vehicle work?

Stored hydrogen under pressure is pumped into a 'cell' constructed from fibres called proton exchange membranes. A 'cell' like a battery, has positive and negative electrodes (anode and cathode). The hydrogen is supplied to the negatively charged cathode, where a chemical catalyst strips away electrons from the hydrogen atoms. Electricity is generated when these electrons flow across the anode. The remaining positively charged hydrogen atoms called ions, diffuse across a special membrane to react with oxygen from the air to produce water. The cell uses the hydrogen to generate 86 kilowatts of electric power which can be stored in a capacitor or used immediately.

The California experimentation will have to answer some difficult questions.

• Will the 'cell' last for 150,000 miles?
• Where will we refuel?
• Will the fuelling station be safe for the public to handle?
• Will the public accept the new technology?
• Can hydrogen be produced in quantities that make the retail price acceptable?

The present filling stations handing petroleum fuels are, as we all know, businesses offering not just fuel. Any move to hydrogen will have to be sustained by similar set ups to maintain the facilities that we have come to expect. In other words, keep the forecourt as the centre of fuelling, whatever that fuel is.

We should not expect quick answers. The transition to sole hydrogen tech-nology is some way off; maybe as long as 20 years. Nobody can say exactly, but the fact is we are on our way. So we had better get used to the idea.

Articles written by Editor of Insite: Frank Hare